Unforgettable Brainstorm in Cairo: Engagements with Ancient Stone and its Production
Before my arrival in Cairo, I was brimming with enthusiasm due to my intense curiosity and interest in the stone manufacturing techniques of ancient Egypt. The prospect of visiting this enchanting land and exploring its remarkable artifacts and architecture with other faculty members and graduate students from different fields and cultural backgrounds was incredibly exciting. What follows is a series of thought journals from my exploration of Egypt’s ancient stone manufacturing techniques. From the awe-inspiring marble designs of Islamic art to the monumental craftsmanship of the Pyramids of Giza, each encounter fueled my curiosity about the connections between ancient technologies across cultures and continents.
As a student deeply interested in archaeology in East Asia and Early China, spanning from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, my focus centers on technological continuities and changes, crafts specialization, and particularly jade production. When I observe an artifact, the first things that come into my mind are its material and the techniques used to create it. During my visit to Egypt, I had the opportunity to present on Islamic art and cultural mobility, using the central medallion in the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo as a focal point (Figure 1). This extraordinary marble design showcases a variety of objects that are not usually seen together, which reminds me of the marble in China.
Marble typically has a Mohs hardness ranging from 3 to 5. This hardness makes it well-suited for carving. In ancient China, specifically during the Han Dynasty from 202 BC to 220 AD, a type of white marble was utilized for constructing stone steps and parapets in palaces. This marble resembles the highly valued Hetian jade, nephrite, with a Mohs hardness rating of 6 to 7. Hetian jade was highly prized in ancient China and was mostly reserved for usage by the elite class. However, because white marble was more accessible than white nephrite jade, individuals preferred using white marble to construct larger objects. Consequently, they affectionately refer to white marble as “Han White Jade,” expressing their fondness for this material.
The Huabiao 华表 (or ceremonial columns, Figure 2) in front of Tiananmen Square in China’s capital, Beijing, are constructed using white marble. Characterized by its white hue, white marble has been employed for sculpting Buddha statues. In the Western world, the Ancient Greeks used it for portrait carving. According to legend, Solomon of Israel is said to have gathered and utilized several metric tons of marble from a pit 100 meters deep during the construction of the Temple. Furthermore, these stones were specifically crafted to construct the imperial palaces and mausoleums of the emperors during the Ming and Qing dynasties in China, starting in 1368 AD. I am unsure whether there is a connection between the marble in the East and West, but I feel excited to see the research potential of this fantastic material, which plays a significant role in different cultures.
I am extremely eager to learn more about crafts production in Ancient Egypt, not only on stone, but also turquoise and pottery. Technology can span over centuries and a vast geographical area, which reflects the cultural exchange and interaction between diverse regions, civilizations, and artistic traditions. The movement of people, ideas, and goods has facilitated the exchange of artistic techniques, motifs, and styles, leading to a rich and varied artistic heritage. Trade, conquest, diplomacy, and migration all played roles in the transmission of artistic ideas and the adaptation of artistic forms across different periods and geographical contexts.
Overall, within the context of production techniques, the concept of cultural mobility underscores the dynamic nature of technical and artistic expression and its integration into wider historical narratives of cross-cultural interaction and exchange.
During our visit to the Pyramids of Giza, I observed the huge, colossal stones (Figures 3 and 4) stacked on one another. I was astounded by the remarkable skill and artistry of ancient craftsmen who managed to construct such a magnificent structure without modern technology. How did the ancient Egyptians manage to create such remarkable artifacts several millennia ago without contemporary machinery? How much labour was involved, and how was it organized efficiently?
Currently, I am engaged in archaeological experiments involving bow-drilling and pump-drilling on stones and jades with varying levels of hardness (from 1 to 7) on the Mohs scale. The archaeological and ethnographic evidence from Egypt and other parts of the world may contribute a lot to this research. In addition, examining labour and time inputs, technological choices, and innovations is essential for studying the organization of production in early societies.
Our visit to the crafts center in Cairo (Figure 5) to observe pottery production added another dimension to my studies. In 2018, I participated in a project at The Chinese University of Hong Kong where we conducted experiments based on the ethnographic evidence collected from pottery production across several Chinese provinces. Ethnographic data indicate that the true rotary motion may be associated with the potter’s wheel, and that the tubular perforation technology is most likely related to the use of axle machines. The invention and use of the wheel are the results of a particular stage of evolution. However, in pottery production, the function of the wheel is to provide centrifugal force to a lump of still-plastic clay that has been precisely “thrown” at its center. Such a well-centered mass, when spinning rapidly — at least 100 revolutions per minute — requires only light guiding pressure from the potter’s hand to rise and adopt any desired circular cross-sectional shape.
British biochemist and historian Joseph Needham proposed that bearings support all wheel-carrying shafts and that the shaft’s end serves as a roller. Heat, retardation, and attrition are inevitable if the bearing is immobile owing to sliding friction. Therefore, lubricating grease was added to the bearings to reduce friction. Much earlier than is commonly believed, engineers sought to interpose additional rolling objects between the shaft and bearing to minimize the adverse effects of frictional drag. Their appearance is a significant indicator of enhanced social productivity. The discovery and application of rotational kinetic energy in processing ancient jade — from raw materials to production techniques, organization, distribution, and consumer behavior — led to significant changes in society’s production and distribution relations. Once I realized this, I understood that techniques used for one material can influence those used for another; for example, the methods applied in pottery, bone, and stone production can impact jade production techniques as well. This Crafts Center trip in Cairo is my first time visiting a real-life pottery production workshop; I was more than excited to see these beautiful final products and the production of works-in-progress. The communication with the artisans also greatly helped me to understand the pottery production technique, which may also benefit my own research on jade.
Despite my lack of familiarity with Egypt’s premodern era, discussions with faculty members and fellow graduate students have revealed the significance of making unbiased comparisons. Such discussions have enriched my ongoing comparative study of turquoise production techniques in ancient Egypt, Mesoamerica, and China. For example, while turquoise was typically considered a valuable resource manufactured for and consumed by elites, I’ve learned that to gain a broader understanding of the role and function of turquoise, it is also crucial to pay attention to the experiences of ordinary people when conducting prehistoric studies.
Observing similarities and contrasts between materials and techniques from different cultures is truly remarkable. While looking from a different perspective aids in our research of the global past, comparisons can also spark original ideas. The brainstorming sessions on this journey concerning the movement of people, ideas, goods, and techniques truly fascinate me, since they motivate deep and creative inquiry.
Yating Liao is a PhD Student in the Anthropology Department at the University of Toronto. She has long been interested in cultural diversity rooted in local social dynamics that involved long-distance interaction across Eurasia. Her research interests include Archaeology in East Asia, experimental archaeology, jade production, and technological studies.